. Raja Rammohan Roy's Tuhfat-ul-Muwahhiddin, published in 1805, analysed the major religions of the world.
. Raja Rammohan Roy founded the Vedanta college in
1825. The college offered both Indian and Western
learning.
. Raja Rammohan Roy stood for trial by jury, separation of powers of the executive and the judicial, and judicial equality between Indians and Europeans. He criticised the zamindari system.
. The Young Bengal of the early 19th century refers to a band of young Bengali intellectuals, who were full of radical social and religious ideas.
. The Tattvabodhini Sabha was established by Debendranath Tagore in 1839 to carry on Rammohan's ideas independent of the Brahmo S3-maj.
. Debendranath Tagore reorganised the Brahmo Samaj in
1843, the year he became a Brahmo.
. Keshab Chandra Sen emphasised universalism as against
Debendranath Tagore's stress on national Hindu iden
tity.
. Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar devoted his entire life to the
issue of widow remarriage. While Rammohan Roy favoured an ascetic widowhood, Vidyasagar advocated a normal life for widow.
. Bethune School for women was founded in Calcutta in
1849.
. The main motto of the Ramakrishna Mission was to
provide social service to the people.
. Vishnu Bhikaji Gokhale, a great social reformer of
Maharashtra, was popularly known as Vishnubawa
Bra~achari.
. The Paramhansa Sabha, founded by Oadoba Pandurang
Tarkhadkar in 1840, was the first reform organisation of
Maharashtra in the 19th century.
. Bal Shastri Jambhekhar (1812-46) was the pioneer of the
intellectual movement in Maharashtra.
. In Bengal, the socia-religious movements began with a religious and philosophical note, while in Maharashtra social issues occupied a prominent position in these movements.
. The Paramhansa Sabha was a secret society; its meetings
were held in the strictest secrecy to protect the organisation from the wrath of the orthodox.
. The Vidhava Vivaha Uttejaka Mandai (Society for Encour
agement of widow re-marriage) was founded by ViShnU
Parashuram Shastri Pandit in 1865.
. Jyotiba Phule, a Mali by caste, was the first Indian to
start a school for the untouchables in 1854. . Ram Krishna Gopal Bhandarkar was known as Maharshi. . Narayan Mahadev Permanand wrote under the pen
name of the 'Political Recluse'.
. Nibandhmala, a monthly Marathi magazine, was started
by Vishnu Shastri Chiplunkar in 1874.
. Kandukari Veeresalingam, known as the father of modem
Telugu prose, was the leading social reformer of South
India in the late 19th and the early 20th centuries.
. By and large, main goals of the socio-religious reforms of the 18th and 19th centuries were: upliftment of the position of women; monogamy, abolition of child marriage; monotheism, abolition of casteism, widow remarriage and the end of superstitions and social bigotry. However, each reform movement did not promote each and every one of these goals.
. Nearly all reforms stood for the growth of Indian
vernaculars.
. Social reform movements viewed ignorance as a curse
to Indian society and attributed it as the rootcause for
the prevalence of superstitions and obscurantism.
. Change and continuity both constituted the basic elements in the movements for social transformation. . The Sudhi movement of the Arya Sabha aimed at
converting non-Hindus to Hinduism.
. The socio-religious movements were basically an urban
phenomenon, i.e. they originated and operated in the
urban areas only.
. Nearly all the intellectuals associated with social reform movements were unanimous that condition of Indian women was deplorable and wretched. They all emphasised the spread of education among women to be a necessary precondition for their liberation.
. The battle of the socio-religious reforms against brahmanism was not confrontationist in nature; the reforms just tried to avoid caste-hostility.
. The 19th century reformers' attack against conversion of Christianity and Christian influence was not directed against the Christian community. It was theological in nature and not communal.
. The social reform in the nineteenth century was not secondary to religious reform. Reformers believed in an organic connection between religious and social life.
. In terms of impact, despite reformers' best endeavours to appeal to the masses, their appeal for all practical purposes remained limited to urban middle classes.
. The most significant contributions of the nineteenth
century reformers lay in (i) abolition of Sat legalisation of widow-remarriage, and (Hi) the re; female education.
. Although the reform movements did not directly on the political issues, they created a space for thel for the subsequent Indian National Movement.
. The social reform movements in Maharashtra IT divided into two distinct strands: (i) the radical n represented by Jyotiba Phule, and (ii) the late mo reforms represented by Mahadev Govind Ranad
. Raja Radhakant Deb organised the orthodox Hine
counter the Brahmo Samaj.
. Dayanand Saraswati termed the vedas as India's
of Ages' and gave the slogan 'Go Back to the \
. Jyotiba Phule's religion rests on 33 principles of
which include freedom and equality of men and w,
. [sara (warning), a pamphlet published in 1855, co:
Jyotiba's main ideas on economics of the ag
classes.
. Jyotiba Phule considered British rules conduci\ social reforms among the sudras and opposed the I National Congress, for it failed to take up pE problems.
. After the death of Jyotiba Phule, Chhatrapati ~ Maharaj of Kolhapur took the mantle of the Satyas( movement. Under Shahu, the movement acquiJ narrow complexion.
. An inherent weakness in the Jyotiba's movement that it did not see the essential link between ma conditions of the people and their culture.
. The social bases of the Justice Party were the Brahmin zamindars and the urban business gr Hence, it served the political interests of these cJ only.
. E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker, or Periyar, founder of the Respect Movement, in Tamil Nadu, resigned froD secretaryship of Madras Provincial Congress Comrr over a segregated casting arraJ}gement for the Brab
and non-Brahmins in a gurukUC1-un by the Congress broke off with Gandhiji on the issue of Varnas~ dharma.
. The upper caste non-Brahmins-Kammas, Reddis Velamas-dominated the Self-Respect Movemer Andhra Pradesh, where the leaders of the move
called a conference in Kollur (Guntur) in 1916 to de the meaning of the term 'Sudra'.
. The non-Brahmin movement in Karnataka was s)
headed by Vokkaligas and Lingayats.
. Under the Leslie Miller Committee, set up unde! pressure of non-Brahmin leaders of Kamataka, government passed an order for an equitable comm representation in the public service.
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Monday, November 30, 2009
THE CONGRESS' HARIJAN MOVEMENT
THE CONGRESS' HARIJAN MOVEMENT It was after 1917 that the Congress began seriously focussing its attention on elev"ating the social status of the lower and backward castes. The emergence of Gandhi as a strong force in the Congress helped in furthering caste reform aims and activities. In 1921, the Congress made an appeal for the removal of untouchability. A committee was set up in 1922 and a resolution was passed in 1923 for the purpose. Gandhi started an All-India Anti-Untouchability League, also called the Harijan Sevak Sangh, in 1932 for providing all kinds of facilities to the untouchables to improve their lot. The weekly Harijan was founded by him in 1933.
OTHERS
The Knivartas of Midnapur (Bengal), who became the Mahishyas, founded the Jati Nirdharani Sabha in 1897 and the Mahishya Samiti in 1901. Both these associations were involved in the nationalist struggle. The untouchable called Namsudras, of Faridpur, also formed associations with the help of some educated persons and missionaries.
The Kurmis and the Alurs were among the lower castes agitating in Bihar against the begar system by refusing to obey laws and to sell cow products to upper castes.
The Maharaja of Kolhapur worked for the upliftment of non-brahmins by establishing schools for them, reserving civil service posts for them, and by teaching them to do the Vedic ceremonies.
OTHERS
The Knivartas of Midnapur (Bengal), who became the Mahishyas, founded the Jati Nirdharani Sabha in 1897 and the Mahishya Samiti in 1901. Both these associations were involved in the nationalist struggle. The untouchable called Namsudras, of Faridpur, also formed associations with the help of some educated persons and missionaries.
The Kurmis and the Alurs were among the lower castes agitating in Bihar against the begar system by refusing to obey laws and to sell cow products to upper castes.
The Maharaja of Kolhapur worked for the upliftment of non-brahmins by establishing schools for them, reserving civil service posts for them, and by teaching them to do the Vedic ceremonies.
B.R. AMBEDKAR AND HIS DEPRESSED CLASSES MOVEMENT
B.R. AMBEDKAR AND HIS DEPRESSED CLASSES MOVEMENT
Dr. Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar's movement worked for the upliftment of the untouchables by fighting for their educational, legal and political rights and encouraging them to throw off the traditional caste duties imposed on them. His programme involved mass agitations, condemnation of the Manusmriti and symbols of. caste hierarchy, and breaking of caste restrictions by doing the tabooed. His own caste, the untouchable Mahars who had earlier (in the 19th century) organised themselves under Gopal Baba Walangkar now began to vehemently demand liberation from caste restrictions. Ambedkar founded the Depressed Classes Institute (Bahishkrit Hitkarini Sabha) in
History Bombay in 1924, a Marathi fortnightly, Bahishkrit Bharat, in 1927, the Samaj Samta Sangh (1927) and the Independent Labour Party. He organised the Mahad satyagraha in 1927, the Parvati temple satyagraha (1928) and the Kalasam temple satyagraha (1930-35), to grant temple entry rights to the depressed castes. The Scheduled Caste Federation, a political party, was formed by him in 1942.
Dr. Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar's movement worked for the upliftment of the untouchables by fighting for their educational, legal and political rights and encouraging them to throw off the traditional caste duties imposed on them. His programme involved mass agitations, condemnation of the Manusmriti and symbols of. caste hierarchy, and breaking of caste restrictions by doing the tabooed. His own caste, the untouchable Mahars who had earlier (in the 19th century) organised themselves under Gopal Baba Walangkar now began to vehemently demand liberation from caste restrictions. Ambedkar founded the Depressed Classes Institute (Bahishkrit Hitkarini Sabha) in
History Bombay in 1924, a Marathi fortnightly, Bahishkrit Bharat, in 1927, the Samaj Samta Sangh (1927) and the Independent Labour Party. He organised the Mahad satyagraha in 1927, the Parvati temple satyagraha (1928) and the Kalasam temple satyagraha (1930-35), to grant temple entry rights to the depressed castes. The Scheduled Caste Federation, a political party, was formed by him in 1942.
CASTE MOVEMENTS
CASTE MOVEMENTS
As has been stated, the early socio-religious reform movements played a major role in inspiring the nationalist, struggle by awakening the people and reforming the society. However, it is equally true that the nationalist struggle in turn contributed to the emergence of social reform movements. Almost all of these movements emerged in the 20th century to work for the upliftment of the lower and backward castes.
A major cause for the rise of caste movements was the grievances nurtured by the educated among the low and backwalJ castes. To improve their lot, the Bhakti and NeoVedantic movements worked by way of embracing the activities of Hindu reform associations. Schools for lower castes were started by K. Ranga Rao in the 1890's. The Depressed Classes Mission Society of India was started as an independent set-up by the Prarthana Samaj to provide facilities for education to persons from lower caste. The Depressed Classes Mission Society of Madras began functioning in 1909.
Caste movements also emerged to uplift the status of the deprived castes by helping them to assert a superior status by following the customs and manners of the traditionally superior groups. These movements, termed Sanskritisation movements, began among the Nadars and Pallars of Tamil Nadu (who claimed a kshatriya status), the Ezhavas and Nairs of Kerala and the Chamars of Jaunpur (who followed the ways of the Siva-Narayana sect).
Radical movements arose from the desire to challenge the domination of brahmins and question the very basis of the traditional caste set-up.
The British rule, on one hand, encouraged movements for the upliftment of castes, both directly and indirectly, and on the other, strengthened caste feudalism by forming alliances with landlords and feudal classes and through non-interference in religion. Its divide and rule policy and the 1890 census which classified castes generated a great deal of confusion and caste uprisings. The Caste Disabilities Removal Act of 1850 and the Special Marriage Amendment Act of 1872 helped in breaking caste rigidity.
Some of the important caste movements are discussed below.
JYOTIBA PHULE AND THE SATYA SHODHAK SAMAJ Jyotiba Phule, belonging to a low caste Mali family, founded the Satya Shodhak Samaj in 1873 to fight brahrninic domination and to liberate low castes by educating them and teaching them their rights. The movement involved a great deal of support from the educated urban of the low castes and rural Maratha peasants. Jyotiba Phule also started a school for untouchables (1854), and an orphanage for widows. His books Glzulam-giri (1872) and Sarvajanik Satyadlzarma Pustak questioned the traditional customs and beliefs of society.
SHRI NARAYANA GURU'S CONTRIBUTION Shri Narayana Guru (1855-1928), a socio-religious reformer who represented the aspirations of the untouchable Ezhavas or Iravas of Kerala, was opposed to brahminic or the priestly class domination and worked to secure temple entry rights to the depressed castes as well. In 1888, he began the Aravippuram Movement with the installation of a Shiva idol at Aravippuram. He set up the Sri Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam (SNDPY) in 1902-03 to fight for temple entry rights to untouchables. The SNDPY had a great impact on the movement of the Adi-Andhra Dalits of Kerala.
THE JUSTICE PARTY MOVEMENT Dr. T.M. Nair, Sir Pitti Theagaraja Chettiar and the Raja of Panagal formed the South Indian Liberal Federation (SILF) in 1916 to protest against the domination of brahmins in government service, education and in the political field. Their non-brahmin manifesto demanding non-brahmin representation in government service can be seen as the first-ever cohesive demand for caste-based reservation. The newspaper, Jitstice, was their main organ for expressing views and opinions. The SILF came to be called the Justice Party which expressed loyalty for the British. The party's efforts contributed to the passing of the 1930 Government Order of providing reservations to groups. Under Periyar, the Justi Party became Dravidar Kazhagam (in 1944). Periyar al came up with the concept of a land for the Dravidia (Dravida Nadu).
THE NAIR MOVEMENT The leaders of the N movement in Kerala, who opposed the socio-political dOli nation by the Namboodari brahmans and the non-Malay brahmans, were C.V. Raman Pillai, K. Rama Krishna Pillai
and M. Padmanabha Pillai. The Malayali Memorial was formed by Raman Pillai in 1891. He resurrected the military glory of the Nairs in his novel, Martanda Varma (1891). Rama Krishna as editor of the Swadeshabhimani (1906-1919), demanded political rights for the Nairs The Nair Service Society was set up by Padmanabha Pillai in Travancore in 1914.
SELF-RESPECT MOVEMENT The radical movement was launched by Periyar or E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker in Tamil Nadu in 1925, to awaken non-brahmans for overthrowing brahminic superiority. The movement organised weddings without involving the brahmins and temple entry. The Manusmriti was condemned for its caste bias. Periyar also brought out the journal Kndi Arasu, in 1924.
THE NADAR MOVEMENT The untouchable shanans of the district of Ramnad (Tamil Nadu) claimed kshatriya status by imitating kshatriya customs to emerge as the Nadars. The Nadar Mahajan Sangam was formed in 1910 to promote education and social welfare among the Nadars.
As has been stated, the early socio-religious reform movements played a major role in inspiring the nationalist, struggle by awakening the people and reforming the society. However, it is equally true that the nationalist struggle in turn contributed to the emergence of social reform movements. Almost all of these movements emerged in the 20th century to work for the upliftment of the lower and backward castes.
A major cause for the rise of caste movements was the grievances nurtured by the educated among the low and backwalJ castes. To improve their lot, the Bhakti and NeoVedantic movements worked by way of embracing the activities of Hindu reform associations. Schools for lower castes were started by K. Ranga Rao in the 1890's. The Depressed Classes Mission Society of India was started as an independent set-up by the Prarthana Samaj to provide facilities for education to persons from lower caste. The Depressed Classes Mission Society of Madras began functioning in 1909.
Caste movements also emerged to uplift the status of the deprived castes by helping them to assert a superior status by following the customs and manners of the traditionally superior groups. These movements, termed Sanskritisation movements, began among the Nadars and Pallars of Tamil Nadu (who claimed a kshatriya status), the Ezhavas and Nairs of Kerala and the Chamars of Jaunpur (who followed the ways of the Siva-Narayana sect).
Radical movements arose from the desire to challenge the domination of brahmins and question the very basis of the traditional caste set-up.
The British rule, on one hand, encouraged movements for the upliftment of castes, both directly and indirectly, and on the other, strengthened caste feudalism by forming alliances with landlords and feudal classes and through non-interference in religion. Its divide and rule policy and the 1890 census which classified castes generated a great deal of confusion and caste uprisings. The Caste Disabilities Removal Act of 1850 and the Special Marriage Amendment Act of 1872 helped in breaking caste rigidity.
Some of the important caste movements are discussed below.
JYOTIBA PHULE AND THE SATYA SHODHAK SAMAJ Jyotiba Phule, belonging to a low caste Mali family, founded the Satya Shodhak Samaj in 1873 to fight brahrninic domination and to liberate low castes by educating them and teaching them their rights. The movement involved a great deal of support from the educated urban of the low castes and rural Maratha peasants. Jyotiba Phule also started a school for untouchables (1854), and an orphanage for widows. His books Glzulam-giri (1872) and Sarvajanik Satyadlzarma Pustak questioned the traditional customs and beliefs of society.
SHRI NARAYANA GURU'S CONTRIBUTION Shri Narayana Guru (1855-1928), a socio-religious reformer who represented the aspirations of the untouchable Ezhavas or Iravas of Kerala, was opposed to brahminic or the priestly class domination and worked to secure temple entry rights to the depressed castes as well. In 1888, he began the Aravippuram Movement with the installation of a Shiva idol at Aravippuram. He set up the Sri Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam (SNDPY) in 1902-03 to fight for temple entry rights to untouchables. The SNDPY had a great impact on the movement of the Adi-Andhra Dalits of Kerala.
THE JUSTICE PARTY MOVEMENT Dr. T.M. Nair, Sir Pitti Theagaraja Chettiar and the Raja of Panagal formed the South Indian Liberal Federation (SILF) in 1916 to protest against the domination of brahmins in government service, education and in the political field. Their non-brahmin manifesto demanding non-brahmin representation in government service can be seen as the first-ever cohesive demand for caste-based reservation. The newspaper, Jitstice, was their main organ for expressing views and opinions. The SILF came to be called the Justice Party which expressed loyalty for the British. The party's efforts contributed to the passing of the 1930 Government Order of providing reservations to groups. Under Periyar, the Justi Party became Dravidar Kazhagam (in 1944). Periyar al came up with the concept of a land for the Dravidia (Dravida Nadu).
THE NAIR MOVEMENT The leaders of the N movement in Kerala, who opposed the socio-political dOli nation by the Namboodari brahmans and the non-Malay brahmans, were C.V. Raman Pillai, K. Rama Krishna Pillai
and M. Padmanabha Pillai. The Malayali Memorial was formed by Raman Pillai in 1891. He resurrected the military glory of the Nairs in his novel, Martanda Varma (1891). Rama Krishna as editor of the Swadeshabhimani (1906-1919), demanded political rights for the Nairs The Nair Service Society was set up by Padmanabha Pillai in Travancore in 1914.
SELF-RESPECT MOVEMENT The radical movement was launched by Periyar or E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker in Tamil Nadu in 1925, to awaken non-brahmans for overthrowing brahminic superiority. The movement organised weddings without involving the brahmins and temple entry. The Manusmriti was condemned for its caste bias. Periyar also brought out the journal Kndi Arasu, in 1924.
THE NADAR MOVEMENT The untouchable shanans of the district of Ramnad (Tamil Nadu) claimed kshatriya status by imitating kshatriya customs to emerge as the Nadars. The Nadar Mahajan Sangam was formed in 1910 to promote education and social welfare among the Nadars.
PARSI REFORM
PARSI REFORM
One of the leaders of the Parsi reform movement of the 19th century was Dadabhai Naoroji. He joined J.B. Wacha, S.S. Bengalee and Naoroji Furdonji to form the Rahanumai Mazdayasanan Sabha (Religious Reform Association), in 1851. Its aim was to improve the social condition of the Parsis and to restore the purity of Zoroastrianism. The founders started the Rast Coftar (Truth Teller), a weekly journal, for Parsi reform. The Zoroastrian Conference was set up to consider social and religious matters.
THE DEVA SADAN Behramji M. Malabari, who staw1ch1y opposed child marriage and compulsory widowhood, formed the Seva Sadan in 1885. The organisation focussed on the welfare of the socially deprived especially the women. Efforts of the Seva Sadan played a major role in ushering in the Age of Consent Act in 1891.
REFORM AMONG THE SIKHS
The Sikh religious reform movement began with the founding of the Khalsa College in Amritsar in the 19th century. The Gurdwara Reform Movement for liberating the gurdwaras from their corrupt mahants tumed into the Akali movement. The Akalis' contribution bore fruit with the passing of a new Gurdwara Act by the Government in 1922.
One of the leaders of the Parsi reform movement of the 19th century was Dadabhai Naoroji. He joined J.B. Wacha, S.S. Bengalee and Naoroji Furdonji to form the Rahanumai Mazdayasanan Sabha (Religious Reform Association), in 1851. Its aim was to improve the social condition of the Parsis and to restore the purity of Zoroastrianism. The founders started the Rast Coftar (Truth Teller), a weekly journal, for Parsi reform. The Zoroastrian Conference was set up to consider social and religious matters.
THE DEVA SADAN Behramji M. Malabari, who staw1ch1y opposed child marriage and compulsory widowhood, formed the Seva Sadan in 1885. The organisation focussed on the welfare of the socially deprived especially the women. Efforts of the Seva Sadan played a major role in ushering in the Age of Consent Act in 1891.
REFORM AMONG THE SIKHS
The Sikh religious reform movement began with the founding of the Khalsa College in Amritsar in the 19th century. The Gurdwara Reform Movement for liberating the gurdwaras from their corrupt mahants tumed into the Akali movement. The Akalis' contribution bore fruit with the passing of a new Gurdwara Act by the Government in 1922.
MUSLIM REFORM MOVEMENTS
MUSLIM REFORM MOVEMENTS
The Muslims were not far behind in their socia-religious reform movements. A beginning had been made by the l Muhammedan Literary Society, formed in 1863, to debate social, religious and political issues and encourage western education among Muslims.
SYED AHMED KHAN AND THE AUGARH MOVEMENT A man who upheld the power of rational thinking, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan encouraged Mulsims to accept the virtues of western education and urged them to apply the principle of enquiry to religion. He believed the Quran to be the true scripture. His fight against superstition and obscurantism continued throughout his life. For a rational and scientific order in society, he founded a scientific society in 1864, an Urdu journal, Tahzib-al-akhlaq in 1870, and the Aligarh School on May 24, 1875. The school was made into the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College in 1877. The college grew into the Aligarh Muslim University and this was where Syed Ahmed's movement was centred.
Though initially a supporter of a Hindu-Muslim alliance, he gradually came round to the view that the goodwill of the British was necessary for the Muslims who would otherwise be subjugated by the Hindus. Thus, the Aligarh Movement is seen as having sown the seeds of Muslim separatism.
THE AHMADIYA MOVEMENT The movement was formed by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad (1839-1908), in 1889. Mirza Ghulam initially defended Islam from the attacks of the Christian missionaries and the reformers. But he went on to proclaim himself as a Messiah and an incarnation of Krishna. Western liberalism and the Hindu religious reform movements had much impact on him. His movement embraced the belief in a universal religion, opposed sacred wars and encouraged fraternal relations among all.
THE DEOBAND MOVEMENT In 1866, the Deoband School of Islamic Theology was set up at Deoband by Rashid Ahmad Gangohi and Muhammad Qasim Nanautavi to promote studies in c1.assical Islam and moral and religious regeneration of Muslims. The school did not support western education and culture. Its religious teachings that encompassed a liberal interpretation of Islam earned it a high reputation. The school's followers included notable personalities such as Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Mahmudul-Hasan and Shibli Numani, who founded the Nadwatal Ulama and Darul Ulum in Lucknow, in 1894-96.
T A' AYUUNI MOVEMENT The religious teachings of Shah Wali-Allah formed the basis of the Ta'ayuuni movement which was led by Karamat Ali Jaunpuri. The Ta'ayuunis opposed innovations and syncretistic practices. They got into conflict with the followers of the Faraidi or Faraizi movement owing to differences in perception.
The Muslims were not far behind in their socia-religious reform movements. A beginning had been made by the l Muhammedan Literary Society, formed in 1863, to debate social, religious and political issues and encourage western education among Muslims.
SYED AHMED KHAN AND THE AUGARH MOVEMENT A man who upheld the power of rational thinking, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan encouraged Mulsims to accept the virtues of western education and urged them to apply the principle of enquiry to religion. He believed the Quran to be the true scripture. His fight against superstition and obscurantism continued throughout his life. For a rational and scientific order in society, he founded a scientific society in 1864, an Urdu journal, Tahzib-al-akhlaq in 1870, and the Aligarh School on May 24, 1875. The school was made into the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College in 1877. The college grew into the Aligarh Muslim University and this was where Syed Ahmed's movement was centred.
Though initially a supporter of a Hindu-Muslim alliance, he gradually came round to the view that the goodwill of the British was necessary for the Muslims who would otherwise be subjugated by the Hindus. Thus, the Aligarh Movement is seen as having sown the seeds of Muslim separatism.
THE AHMADIYA MOVEMENT The movement was formed by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad (1839-1908), in 1889. Mirza Ghulam initially defended Islam from the attacks of the Christian missionaries and the reformers. But he went on to proclaim himself as a Messiah and an incarnation of Krishna. Western liberalism and the Hindu religious reform movements had much impact on him. His movement embraced the belief in a universal religion, opposed sacred wars and encouraged fraternal relations among all.
THE DEOBAND MOVEMENT In 1866, the Deoband School of Islamic Theology was set up at Deoband by Rashid Ahmad Gangohi and Muhammad Qasim Nanautavi to promote studies in c1.assical Islam and moral and religious regeneration of Muslims. The school did not support western education and culture. Its religious teachings that encompassed a liberal interpretation of Islam earned it a high reputation. The school's followers included notable personalities such as Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Mahmudul-Hasan and Shibli Numani, who founded the Nadwatal Ulama and Darul Ulum in Lucknow, in 1894-96.
T A' AYUUNI MOVEMENT The religious teachings of Shah Wali-Allah formed the basis of the Ta'ayuuni movement which was led by Karamat Ali Jaunpuri. The Ta'ayuunis opposed innovations and syncretistic practices. They got into conflict with the followers of the Faraidi or Faraizi movement owing to differences in perception.
LOKAHITAWADI'S REFORM ACTIVITIES
Gopal Hari Deshmukh or Lokahitawadi (1823-92), was a profound scholar and social reformer who encouraged people to acquire western education and a rational outlook. He advocated female education for the upliftment of women. In his many articles, essays and books, he denounced the dominance of the old social outlook, the extreme stress on religion in daily life, the selfish attitude of the rich and pleaded for a humanitarian attitude and social service.
RADHASWAMI MOVEMENT
The movement was founded by Tulsi Ram or Shiv Dayal Saheb (also, Swamiji Maharaj), in 1861. The sect preached belief in one supreme being, the Guru's supreme position and a simple social life for the believers (the Satsang). It does not recognise temples and shrines. The belief is that spiritual fulfilment can be gained without giving up the worldly life.
DEVA SAMAJ
The Samaj, founded by Shiv Narain Agnihotri in 1887, preached high moral and social conduct like, for instance, keeping oneself away from gambling and intoxicants. The Deva Shastra, a book of teachings, talks of the existence of the Supreme Being, the soul's eternal value and the supreme position of the Guru. The Samaj was popular only till 1813.
BHARAT DHARMA MAHAMANDALA
In 1902, various small organisations founded with the aim of defending orthodox Hinduism from the attacks of reformers, such as the Arya Samaj, were united to form the Bharat Dharma Mahamandali. Based at Varanasi, the organisation also worked to usher in some reforms, and set up as well as managed Hindu educational and religious institutions.
INDIAN (NATIONAL) SOCIAL CONFERENCE
The Conference, founded by M.G. Ranade and Raghunath Rao for social reform, had its first session in December 1987. Its main focus was on abolition of polygamy and kulinism and it encouraged intercaste marriages. It began the 'Pledge Movement' to fight against child marriage. The Conference is sometimes referred as the social reform cell of the Indian National Congress.
SERVANTS OF INDIA SOCIETY
The society for social reform, formed by Gopal Krishna Gokhale in 1915, did notable work in providing famine relief and in improving the condition of the tribals.
SOCIAL SERVICE LEAGUE
Founded by Narayan Malhar Joshi, a Servants of India Society member, Narayan Malhar Joshi in 1911, the League aimed at discussions of social problems to inform public about social matters and better working and living conditions for the common people. The League set up schools, dispensaries, and libraries to achieve its objectives.
SEVA SAMITI
Hridayanath Kunzru, a member of the Servants of India Society, organised the Samiti at Allahabad in 1914, to improve the status of the suffering classes, reform criminals and to rescue those suffering in society. Social service undertaken by the Samiti contributed towards the spread of education and relief activities during floods and epidemics.
OTHERS
The Paramhans Mandali was founded in 1849. Its believers emphasised the unity of godhead and agitated to break caste rules.
The Students Literary and Scientific Society was formed in 1848. Its Gujarati and Marathi branch (Dnyan Prasarak Mandalis) debated popuiar science and social questions.
The Madras Hindu Social Reform Association was founded in 1878, by Virasalingam, to promote widow re-marriage. The Social Purity Movement of R. Venkat Ratnam Naidu worked to abolish the devadasi tradition and advocated temperance.
A reform movement was founded by Annie Besant in 1904, to promote Hindu social and religious advancement.
RADHASWAMI MOVEMENT
The movement was founded by Tulsi Ram or Shiv Dayal Saheb (also, Swamiji Maharaj), in 1861. The sect preached belief in one supreme being, the Guru's supreme position and a simple social life for the believers (the Satsang). It does not recognise temples and shrines. The belief is that spiritual fulfilment can be gained without giving up the worldly life.
DEVA SAMAJ
The Samaj, founded by Shiv Narain Agnihotri in 1887, preached high moral and social conduct like, for instance, keeping oneself away from gambling and intoxicants. The Deva Shastra, a book of teachings, talks of the existence of the Supreme Being, the soul's eternal value and the supreme position of the Guru. The Samaj was popular only till 1813.
BHARAT DHARMA MAHAMANDALA
In 1902, various small organisations founded with the aim of defending orthodox Hinduism from the attacks of reformers, such as the Arya Samaj, were united to form the Bharat Dharma Mahamandali. Based at Varanasi, the organisation also worked to usher in some reforms, and set up as well as managed Hindu educational and religious institutions.
INDIAN (NATIONAL) SOCIAL CONFERENCE
The Conference, founded by M.G. Ranade and Raghunath Rao for social reform, had its first session in December 1987. Its main focus was on abolition of polygamy and kulinism and it encouraged intercaste marriages. It began the 'Pledge Movement' to fight against child marriage. The Conference is sometimes referred as the social reform cell of the Indian National Congress.
SERVANTS OF INDIA SOCIETY
The society for social reform, formed by Gopal Krishna Gokhale in 1915, did notable work in providing famine relief and in improving the condition of the tribals.
SOCIAL SERVICE LEAGUE
Founded by Narayan Malhar Joshi, a Servants of India Society member, Narayan Malhar Joshi in 1911, the League aimed at discussions of social problems to inform public about social matters and better working and living conditions for the common people. The League set up schools, dispensaries, and libraries to achieve its objectives.
SEVA SAMITI
Hridayanath Kunzru, a member of the Servants of India Society, organised the Samiti at Allahabad in 1914, to improve the status of the suffering classes, reform criminals and to rescue those suffering in society. Social service undertaken by the Samiti contributed towards the spread of education and relief activities during floods and epidemics.
OTHERS
The Paramhans Mandali was founded in 1849. Its believers emphasised the unity of godhead and agitated to break caste rules.
The Students Literary and Scientific Society was formed in 1848. Its Gujarati and Marathi branch (Dnyan Prasarak Mandalis) debated popuiar science and social questions.
The Madras Hindu Social Reform Association was founded in 1878, by Virasalingam, to promote widow re-marriage. The Social Purity Movement of R. Venkat Ratnam Naidu worked to abolish the devadasi tradition and advocated temperance.
A reform movement was founded by Annie Besant in 1904, to promote Hindu social and religious advancement.
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